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新教（Protestantism），亦称基督新教，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大流派。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离罗马普世大公教会（大公的基督教）而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗，以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。民间常称为耶稣教，因对罗马公教（即天主教）抱抗议态度，不承认罗马主教的教皇地位，故西方一般称基督新教为“抗罗宗”或“抗议宗”。这词源出德文“Protestanten”（抗议者），最初指1529年在德意志帝国会议中对恢复天主教特权之决议案提出抗议的新教诸侯和城市代表，后衍为新教各教派的共同称谓。主要分布在英国、德国、瑞士、北欧五国和美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰等国。鸦片战争前后，新教相继传入中国。

新教，亦称基督新教，是“Protestantism”的翻译。

New Protestantism新教（Protestantism）是指基督教的一个主要分支，起源于16世纪的欧洲宗教改革运动。在这个运动中，一些基督教教士和信徒对罗马天主教会的宗教权威和实践方式提出了质疑，并试图通过对《圣经》的重新解释和对教会体制的改革来恢复原始基督教的纯粹性。新教的核心信仰是“信仰称义”，即信徒通过相信基督的救赎和死亡复活，而不是靠自己的功德和善行获得上帝的救赎和赦免。新教的宗派众多，包括路德宗、改革宗、浸信会、卫理公会、圣公会等等，每个宗派在教义和实践上都有所不同。新教教会的组织形式也各不相同，有些是牧师领导的，有些是民主制，有些是埃比神学制度（Episcopal polity），即由主教领导的。新教教会在欧洲和北美洲非常普遍，并且已经传播到世界各地，成为全球最大的基督教分支之一。总的来说，新教是基督教的一个主要分支，强调个人信仰的重要性，反对教会的中央集权，主张重新回到《圣经》的教导和原始基督教的纯粹性，对基督教的历史和发展产生了深远的影响。

新教一词意译自英语的“Protestantism”（抗议主义），相对于天主教的“Catholicism”（至公主义），是依国家主义、民族主义、个人主义乃至自由主义组建教会，重视个体独立性、政教分离的意识形态。该词由“Protest”（抗议）加倾向词“-ant”及“-ism”（主义）三部分组成，其中前两部分组成的“Protestant”（抗议宗），来自拉丁语“protestari”，或“protestatio”。抗议宗原是天主教会内部的抗议者，通常从11世纪东西教会大分裂算起。其中彼得·瓦勒度、阿诺德·布雷西亚、约翰·威克里夫，以及遭教廷火刑杀害的扬·胡斯等人被视为最早的抗议领袖。而奥斯定会司铎马丁·路德基于赎罪券等教会腐败问题，著成于1517年的《九十五条论纲》，则是抗议宗要求罗马教廷及天主教会改革的最后通牒。 1529年，神圣罗马帝国及天主教会举办的施派尔会议结束后，不接受会议对路德判决的基督徒陆续成立了自己的教会。而慈运理、约翰·加尔文开始的抗议宗，又将注意力主要放到改革层面，志在革除天主教会残余的传统，因而又称改革宗（Reformed）。抗议宗加改革宗，即宗教改革（Protestant Reformed），通称改革（The Reformed）。新教也特指改革宗的教会。

原文单词:PROTESTANTISM意思:新教伦理

新教（Protestantism） 基督新教，简称新教，或译为更正教、反对教，也经常被直接称为基督教，是与天主教、东正教并列，为广义上的基督宗教的三大派别之一。

您问的是英国如何成为新教的吗？克伦威尔改革后。克伦威尔的新教阵营，主张《大宪章》奠定的自由传统，所谓辉格党就是自由派。新教，亦称基督新教，英文Protestantism的意译。是基督教的一派，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大派别。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离天主教而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗，以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”、“耶稣教”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。

基督教里的清教徒居多。

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　　在英国宗教改革运动的发起者是国王，这使得英国的宗教改革是一场自上而下的运动。自从14～15世纪的英法百年战争结束以后，英国人开始了潜心发展自己的民族国家的历程，特别是1485年开始的都铎王朝。这一王朝最著名的国王是亨利八世（1509－1547）和伊丽莎白一世（1558－1603），他们两位的统治时代正是16世纪宗教改革的时代，而英国宗教改革的序幕便是由亨利八世拉开的。　　新教即基督教新教，汉语意为“基督教（英语：Christianity, Christian religion）的新教会（churches）或新教派（denominations）”；或根据德（Protestantismus）、英（Protestantism）、法（Protestantisme）等欧洲宗教改革中心地区主要语言中对应单词的原意译为抗议宗、抗罗宗、反罗宗、反对教、誓反教、更正教、改新教等，也经常被直接称作“基督教”），是与“公教”、“正教”并列的基督教三大派别之一。　　新教所代表的抗议原则和精神可以追溯到14世纪后期的一些宗教改革先行者。英国威克里夫派和罗拉德派、波希米亚的胡斯运动和意大利G.萨伏那洛拉的信徒，把改革思想的种子撒播在欧洲广大地区。16世纪20年代，马丁·路德在德国发起的宗教改革运动，迅即在整个德国形成燎原之势。在瑞士，基督新教U.茨温利和J.加尔文等的改革活动，进一步扩大和加深了新教的影响。英王亨利八世出于政治上的原因，由上而下推行宗教改革；在克兰麦的协助下，组成具有独特形式的新教教会，以摆脱教皇的管辖。到16世纪中叶，新教的三个主要宗派，即马丁·路德创立的路德宗，加尔文创立的归正宗和作为英格兰国教的安立甘宗，都已在欧洲出现，并同罗马天主教相抗衡。三大宗派在其形成的过程中，得到所在民族独立国家的世俗政权或诸侯的支持与保护。在长期复杂的“宗教战争”之后，根据随之订立的一些和约，如1555年的《奥格斯堡和约》和1648年的威斯特伐利亚和约确认的“教随国定”原则，基本上形成了新教在西欧各国分布的格局，路德宗分布于德国大部和北欧诸国,包括丹麦、挪威、瑞典、芬兰等;归正宗为瑞士、德国一部、荷兰和苏格兰；安立甘宗主要在英格兰。三大宗派的信徒人数当时占新教徒的绝大多数，因此也被称为新教的主流教派。　　16世纪末到17世纪，新教的三个主要宗派在教会组织和崇拜仪式上已基本定型。对教义的表述和阐述，经过长期的争论，也逐渐形成体系。新教的理论家以欧洲一些大学为基地，热衷于编写大量的神学著作，但内容充满烦琐的争辩和考证，失去改教初期那种富有抗议精神的活力。这一时期后被称为新教经院主义时期。17世纪中叶，英格兰的清教徒运动要求以加尔文主义改革妥协保守的安立甘国教会，曾成为资产阶级革命的一面旗帜,把新教运动又推进一步,结果产生了脱离国教的一些新的独立宗派，如英格兰的长老会、公理会、浸会、公谊会等。清教徒运动后来由移民传到美洲，使新教在北美发展成为影响最广的教派。在德国，以斯彭内尔为代表的虔敬主义运动和清教徒运动相呼应，提倡人个的虔修生活和布道工作，举办慈善事业，由弗兰克等创办的哈雷大学成为德国虔敬主义的中心，对后来新教的发展有重要影响。　　

现在有人宣扬信三稣，说是耶稣的转世，来造福人类拯救人类，只要深信不疑，并且按照神的教诲约束自己，神就会让你心想事成、消灾免难。基督教（希腊语：Χριστιανισμ、拉丁语：Christianismus）是以信仰耶稣基督为救世主的宗教。天主教(拉丁语：Ecclesiam catholicam)、新教(德语：Protestantismus、法语：Protestantisme、英语：Protestantism)、东正教(希腊语：ΟρθδοξηΕκκλησα、教会斯拉夫语：Православи)、基督教马龙派等等统称基督教——中文中“基督教”往往特指新教（又俗称“耶稣教”），三大教派（天主教、东正教和新教）和基督教马龙派的统称一般用“基督宗教”这个词。但在本词条中，“基督教”指“基督宗教”，即总称，而不是新教。求采纳

伊丽莎白一世的宗教信仰要从她童年讲起！她的父亲亨利八世本来有一个结婚20几年王后但是这个王后连续生了6个小孩但除了一个女儿（玛丽一世）其余夭折！为了有个儿子！他废除了皇后！之后又陆续娶了5个王后!但在西方一个国王只能娶一个王后！所以他违反了天主教教义！之后把新教改为了国教！（他并不是同时娶得皇后！有两人离婚!有两位被他送进了伦敦塔被切了脑袋！有一位难产死了！最后一位守寡！）难产的王后生下了亨利八世唯一的儿子爱德华！爱德华身体不好16岁就死掉了！玛丽一世即位！（玛丽一世是第一个王后的女儿使受到天主教会承认的）她一贯支持天主教！并血腥镇压新教教徒！有血腥的玛丽之称！并把她的异母妹妹伊丽莎白送进了伦敦塔（英国的天牢！专关死囚重犯)!玛丽死后伊丽莎白即位！成为伊丽莎白一世！伊丽莎白一世就是被送进伦敦塔以通奸罪被处死王后的女儿（她妈妈是被人陷害的）因为她是不被天主教会承认的私生女！所以也向她的父亲一样信奉了新教！也许是因为她的父亲的婚姻问题给她带来的影响！她没有结婚！用她的话讲！她嫁给了英格兰！

基督教改革后，出现了很多的派别清教徒是其中的一派，而且是最极端的几个教派之一清教徒极其虚伪，而且内心变态对于一切的快乐的事情，都要禁绝尤其是看不惯别人过得比他好

基督教新教（Protestantism），亦称基督新教，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大流派。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离罗马普世大公教会（大公的基督教）而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗，以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。因对罗马公教（即天主教）抱抗议态度，不承认罗马主教的教皇地位，故西方一般称基督新教为“抗罗宗”。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。因对罗马公教（即天主教）抱抗议态度，不承认罗马主教的教皇地位，故西方一般称基督新教为“抗罗宗”。天主教的全称为“罗马天主教会”或“罗马公教会”，即由罗马教皇领导的教会。天主教一词用于指信奉罗马天主教理论体系，包括道德、圣餐仪式以及教条，并完全服从圣座的基督宗教信徒，在基督宗教的所有教会之中，天主教会的人数最为庞大，全世界人数约有11.3亿，占世界总人口17%，天主教会也是所有基督宗教的教会中最为庞大的教会。在1960年代以前，由于天主教内部的礼仪之争，罗马天主教会与罗马公教会之间的关系一度非常紧张。然而，自1960年代以来，罗马天主教会与罗马公教会之间的关系逐渐得到了改善和发展，两教会之间的交流和合作也得到了加强。新教与天主教的区别，在于对“因信称义”的不同的理解。新教认为“因信称义”的“信”，是指“信仰者的内心里相信”，而不是指“相信教会的教导”。而天主教则认为，“因信称义”的“信”，是指“信仰者对上帝的信仰”，而不是指“信仰者的内心”。

道教： Taoism 佛教： Buddhism 天主教: Catholicism 基督教：伊斯兰教：Islam Christianism

god Jesus Christ angel Cross Christian grace sin hell confession

基督教三大教派：天主教、基督新教、东正教。一、天主教天主教的全称为“罗马天主教会”，亦称“罗马公教”，简称“公教”，以前也曾音译为“加特力教”。天主教、东正教与新教并列为基督教三大派别，我国学术界通常把它们合称为“基督宗教”。二、基督新教新教（Protestantism），亦称基督新教，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大流派。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离罗马普世大公教会（大公的基督教）而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗。以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。三、东正教东正教，国际通称“正教会”（英语：Orthodox Church）或“东正教会”（英语：Eastern Orthodox Church）。官名“正统大公教会”（希腊语：Ορθόδοξη Καθολική Εκκλησία，俄语：Православная Католическая Церковь，英语：Orthodox Catholic Church），与天主教、新教并称为基督教三大流派，是基于正统派神学并强调自身正统性的宗徒继承教会。共同教义基督教的教义，各教派强调的重点也不同，但基本信仰还是得到各教派公认的。基督教的教义可归纳为两个字“博爱”。在耶稣眼里，博爱分为两个方面：爱上帝和爱人如己。耶稣曾经说过：“你要尽心、尽性、尽意的爱主你的上帝，这是诫命中的第一，且是最大的。”其次也相仿，就是要爱人如己。这两条诫命是律法和先知一切道理的总纲。（《马太福音》第二十二章36-40节）在基督教的教义中，爱上帝是指在宗教生活方面要全心全意的侍奉上帝。基督教是严格的一神教，只承认上帝耶和华是最高的神，反对多神崇拜和偶像崇拜，也反对宗教生活上的繁文缛节和哗众取宠。“爱人如己”是基督徒日常生活的基本准则。它的要求是：人应该自我完善，应该严于律己，宽以待人，应该忍耐、宽恕，要爱仇敌，并从爱仇敌进而反对暴力反抗。只有做到上述要求，才能达到博爱的最高境界——爱人如己。

yéyēxié笔画：8部首：耳结构：左右结构五笔：BBH五行：土释义笔顺常用词组同步精讲视频掌握技巧汉字演变知识精讲视频基本释义yé1.古代与“爷”同义，父亲，主人应用：耶娘2.疑问语气词，与“吗”相近应用：“是耶非耶？立而望之，偏何姗姗其来迟。”——《李夫人歌》yē1.音译词应用：耶和华,耶稣会xié1.与“邪”同义，不正当应用：“众生命，尽信耶言，不解学参禅。”——《敦煌掇琐·太子入山修道赞》详细释义yé〈助〉①(形声。从耳,邑(右耳旁是“邑”的变形)声。不详)本义:句末语气词。相当于“吗”或“呢”为一郎僮耶。——唐· 柳宗元《童区寄传》史公果死耶。—— 清· 全祖望《梅花岭记》抑未死耶。岂可近耶。——清· 纪昀《阅微草堂笔记》不久死耶。捋虎须耶。过实耶。——清· 周容《芋老人传》猎虫所耶。——《聊斋志异·促织》人诟詈耶。——《明史》〈名〉①父亲。后作“爷”今人不以贵贱呼父皆为耶,盖传袭已久矣。——宋· 程大昌《演繁露》军书十二卷,卷卷有耶名。——《古文苑·木兰诗》耶娘妻子走相送,尘埃不见咸阳桥。—— 杜甫《兵车行》耶耶(父亲;祖父);耶娘(父母。后多作“爷娘”)〈助〉①用于句末或句中,表示疑问、提顿、反问、选择、测度、判断、感叹等。如:耶乐(叹词。如说啊呀);耶耶(叹词。表示惊讶); 耶许(象声词。本为劳动时众人齐发的声音。引申为有齐声共叹之义);耶禹(如耶许);耶耶乎(方言。有随便、马虎、不负责、不高明等意);耶揄(揶揄。耍笑、嘲弄)②另见 yēyē〈名〉①耶稣或耶稣教的简称佛生最先, 孔次之, 耶又欢之。—— 谭嗣同《仁学》②译音用字 。如:耶和瓦(耶和华)③另见 yé

不同于罗马天主教也不同于东正教，新教是一个涵盖所有宗教的宗教。

1.文艺复兴Renaissance：the revival of art and literature under the influence of classical models in the 14th–16th centuries2.宗教改革Protestant Reformation：The Protestant Reformation, also called the Protestant Revolt or simply The Reformation, was the European Christian reform movement that established Protestantism as a constituent branch of contemporary Christianity.3.启蒙运动The Enlightenment：a European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition. It was heavily influenced by 17th-century philosophers such as Descartes, Locke, and Newton, and its prominent exponents include Kant, Goethe, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Adam Smith.

天主教、东正教和新教是基督教的三个主要教派。基督教是世界上第一大宗教，其信徒约有18亿人，与伊斯兰教和佛教并称世界三大宗教。 基督教产生之后，在罗马帝国境内，由于地理、历史、文化和政治等方面的原因，产生了东部教会和西部教会之间的分歧。东部教会承袭希腊文化传统，包括君士坦丁堡、安提阿、亚历山大里亚和耶路撒冷四大"牧首"区；西部教会承袭拉丁文化传统，包括以罗马为中心的帝国西部地区。1054年，东西部教会正式分裂。 东部教会强调自己的正统性，称为"正教"；因为以东部教会为主体，也称为"东正教"；因最初盛行于希腊语地区，举行宗教仪式时使用希腊语，因此也称"希腊正教"。西部教会强调自己的普世性，称为"公教"；因为中心在罗马，也称"罗马公教"；传入中国后，被译为"天主教"。16世纪在天主教教会内部爆发宗教改革运动，一批脱离天主教而形成的新派别因为不承认罗马教皇的权威而被称为"抗议宗"，统称"新教"，与被视为"旧教"的天主教相对。欧洲宗教改革运动形成了路德宗、加尔文宗和安立甘宗三个主要新教派别，经过历史的发展演变，现在新教主要有六大派别（路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗、公理宗、浸礼宗、卫斯理宗）及众多支派和独立教团。因为在汉语中常以基督教这一称呼特指新教，为了加以区别，有人将包括天主教、东正教和新教在内的各派统称"基督宗教"。 天主教在历史上形成了严格的教阶制度，以教皇为最高首领。东正教在历史上将君士坦丁堡牧首称为"普世牧首"，但是只享有名义上的首席地位。16世纪以来，形成了多个自主教会和自治教会。新教反对天主教以教皇为首的教阶制度，主张教会制度多样化，主要有主教制、长老制和公理制等。 基督教的基本教义包括宣扬独一无二的上帝、三位一体、原罪、救赎、末世等，天主教、东正教和新教在这些方面差别不大。与天主教相比，新教在教义上强调"因信称义"，重视信徒与上帝直接相通。《圣经》包括《旧约》和《新约》，是基督教各派共同的经典。天主教、东正教和新教所用的《新约》基本相同，但《旧约》差别较大，天主教和东正教所用的《旧约》内容比新教多出一些。由于中文译本不同，三个教派在《圣经》专名和术语的中文翻译上也有差异。 在宗教礼仪上，天主教和东正教奉行七件圣事，即洗礼、坚振、告解、圣体、终傅、神品和婚配，而新教则只强调洗礼和圣餐两种圣事，有些新教派别甚至放弃了所有圣事。（

　　耶　　yē ， yé　　1.yē ，用于译音，如”耶稣“”耶路撒冷“。　　2.yé ，疑问助词，如“是耶非耶”，现在也可以表示一个人非常激动的语气，有装可爱撒娇之嫌，未婚和结婚不久年轻女生常用。　　yē　　(1)耶稣或耶稣教的简称[Jesus or protestantism]　　佛生最先，孔次之，耶又欢之。——谭嗣同《仁学》　　(2)译音用字[translating.word]。如：耶和瓦(耶和华)　　耶yé　　(1)疑问助词。用于句末或句中，表示疑问、提顿、反问、选择、测度、判断、感叹等。如：耶乐(叹词。如说啊呀);耶耶(叹词。表示惊讶);耶许(象声词。本为劳动时众人齐发的声音。引申为有齐声共叹之义);耶禹(如耶许);耶耶乎(方言。有随便、马虎、不负责、不高明等意);耶揄(揶揄。耍笑、嘲弄);是耶(干什么)　　《说文》：”耶，会意。字从耳，从邑。“耳”指耳朵。“邑”指有常住居民的城镇。“耳”与“邑”联合起来表示“具有监听外界风声功能的城镇”。　　本义：（古代）大国的边邑。大国的“门户”或“传达室”。　　举例：湘西山区白河上游的水码头里耶古城。东周时代里耶是巴楚交界处，楚国在此建筑有军事城堡。该古城名称即是由它有“耳朵”的作用而来的。　　引申义：用为语气词，表示打听消息或等待证实的语气，相当于“吗”或“呢”。耶的这个语法作用也是由它的本义而来的，即它有“打探”的意思。　　为一郎僮耶。——唐·柳宗元《童区寄传》　　史公果死耶。——清·全祖望《梅花岭记》　　抑未死耶。　　岂可近耶。——清·纪昀《阅微草堂笔记》　　不久死耶。　　捋虎须耶。　　今夫不受之天，固众人，又不受之人，得为众人而已耶？——王安石《伤仲永》　　过实耶。——清·周容《芋老人传》　　猎虫所耶。——《聊斋志异·促织》　　人诟詈耶。——《明史》　　(2)同“爷”。父亲。后作“爷”[father]。(此为文言通假用法)　　今人不以贵贱呼父皆为耶，盖传袭已久矣。——宋·程大昌《演繁露》　　军书十二卷，卷卷有耶名。——《古文苑·木兰诗》　　耶娘妻子走相送，尘埃不见咸阳桥。——杜甫《兵车行》　　耶耶(父亲;祖父)；耶娘(父母。后多作“爷娘”)　　(3)句末语气词，同“也”。　　“也”字在发展过程中，在语气上、运用上都有变化。它的语气，强烈果断，用在句尾，当作肯定语气词，主要用于陈述句中，比其他同类词意义明显。《史记·孙子传》：“愿勿斩也。”《史记·淮阴侯列传》：“用与不用，听与不听也。”《论语·子罕》：“三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也。”语气强烈，都表示肯定之义。由于也字读音和邪耶同，有时把它当作疑问语气词的乎、耶(邪)用……《庄子》：“然则之所谓知者，不乃为大盗积者也。”《晏子》：“景公曰：此君子之服也?小人之服也?”《晋书·魏舒传》：“主人妻夜产，俄而闻车马之声，相问曰：‘男也?女也?"”《魏书·崔浩传》：“……先攻城也?先略地也?”《魏书·刘芳传》：“(王)肃曰：‘此非刘石经耶?"”故郭忠恕《佩+集序》有邪也弗殊之说，《颜氏家训》曰：“邪者未定之辞……北人即呼为也字。”(《唐韵》正卷九“也”字条)可见古音耶(邪)、也为异字同音通用。这里也、耶(邪)虽同作疑问语气词用，但并不意味着它们是同义词。“耶”的本义属疑问语气词，而“也”的本义则属肯定语气词。所以，也字不能随便当耶字用，只有在句中岂、焉、安、何等字为之先，它才能当作耶字用，如“何为者耶”，可以作“何为者也”，而“是耶”、“非耶”不能作“是也”、“非也”。　　摘自《百度百科》相关词条。

Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect. It was founded by Jesus. Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth and his life, death, resurrection God loves us and would like for us to live eternally with Him in glory. Because of our sin, we are separated from God. We cannot overcome sin by our own efforts. Because God loves us, He came to earth in human form (as Jesus) and died on the cross to take the penalty for our sins. Because Christ has died for us, salvation (forgiveness of sin and reconciliation to God) is available as a free gift to anyone who is willing to receive it. We receive salvation by making a life-changing commitment to Christ, not merely by accepting doctrines or joining an organization. At first, Christianity remained a sect Paul, began the wider spread of Christianity Christianity continues to spread, especially to the poor Christianity gradually spread from Jerusalem throughout the Roman empire. Apostles such as Paul played a major role in carrying Christu2019s message across the region It is the predominant religion in the Americas, Europe, Philippine Islands, Oceania, and large parts of Africa. Only 40 percent of Americans that are Christian can name more than four of the Ten Commandments. There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. Christianity may be broadly represented as being divided into three main groupings Roman Catholicism Eastern Christianity Protestantism

　　今天的基督教分成三个主要派别，东正教、天主教（罗马公教）和基督新教。东正教和罗　　马公教体系较为严密，从各地牧师一层层直到顶层的教皇，所以各自信仰体系的内部冲突　　较小。而新教可以说是所有对天主教进行改革后的基督教派的统称，派宗繁多，比如英国　　国教、路得宗、长老会等等，各教派在信仰方式上相互间的差异比较大。新教的英文叫Pr　　otestantism,字面的意思是“对抗”，表示和天主教有所区分。但是翻译到中文时，可能　　是因为“抗教”这样的名字带有一些挑衅的感觉，所以就沿用信仰的核心－“信仰耶稣基　　督”，而取名为基督教。　　其实，不管是东正教、天主教还是基督新教在基本信仰上都是一致的，否则也不会统称为　　“基督教”。总的来说，六、七世纪的使徒信经和公元381年最后定稿的尼西亚信经是基督　　教信仰的核心。　　尼西亚信经　　我信独一上帝，全能的父，创造天地和一切有形无形之物的主；我信独一主耶稣基督，上　　帝的独生子；在万世之前为父所生，从神出来的神，从光出来的光，从真神出来的真神；　　受生的，不是被造的；主为要拯救我们世人，从天降临，由圣灵感孕童贞女玛利亚，取了　　肉身，并成为人；在本丢.彼得多手下，为我们钉十字架；被害，埋葬，照圣经所说第三日　　复活，升天，坐在父的右边，将来必在荣耀中再降临，审判活人、死人，她的国永无穷尽　　。　　我信圣灵是主，是赐生命者；从父、子出来，于父、子同受敬拜，同享尊荣；曾藉先知传　　谕。我信使徒所立唯一圣而公的教会。我承认为赦罪设立的洗礼。我盼望死人复活，并来　　世的生命。　　阿门。　　关于东正教的情况我不是太清楚，不好多说。对于新教和天主教，它们的核心矛盾在于如　　何能够获得主的救赎。天主教认为，人获得神的救赎关键要靠善行。人凭着善性就能获得　　一定的功绩，死的时候功绩足够就可以获得救赎。如果一个人行善如流，他的功绩比较多　　，还可以支取给别人用。“赎罪券”就是因此而来。新教则认为，人获救是因为神的恩赐　　，而不是出于自己的德行。人无论如何保守自己都难免成为罪人，而人只有仰仗神，信靠　　神，才可以得到救赎。这称为“因信称义”，是基督新教的信仰核心。　　天主教的崇拜方式非常复杂。婴儿一出生就接受洗礼，一生中有诸多教会礼节需要行使。　　牧师严格使用拉丁文向神祷告，普通人必须通过“告解”，将自己求神的事情告诉牧师，　　由牧师代其祷告。直到最近几十年，普通的天主教徒才开始被允许自己读圣经，之前这都　　是禁止的。新教的教会礼仪简化了许多，它强调的是心中对主的信靠而不是表面堂皇的宗　　教仪式，所以基督教徒和神的关系更加紧密。基督教徒可以自己读经，用各种语言向神祷　　告，和神交通。　　圣母崇拜在天主教和东正教里都有，天主教还喜欢崇拜那些已经死去的圣徒。他们认为，　　圣母、圣徒因为获得了神的拯救已经在天国和神在一起，求他们作为“中保”，代向神求　　赦免罪。而新教坚持只有耶稣基督才是神，才有资格赦免人的罪。因此新教只向耶稣基督　　祷告。　　因为对待圣徒的态度不同，所以天主教的圣经和新教的圣经都略有不同。圣经包括旧约和　　新约。旧约是在耶稣基督降世前神和犹太人的约定，而新约是耶稣降世后，耶稣的门徒收　　到圣灵启示而写成的。在新约部分，天主教圣经有N卷（不好意思记不清楚啦）的经文是专　　门记载圣徒的言行的，而新教认为这些记载不是神的启示，只是记载人的行为，所以就从　　圣经中删除了这些内容。　　的确，基督教反对偶像崇拜。偶像崇拜尤其反对那些敬拜祖先和其它原始宗教作出来的偶　　像。而对于圣母、耶稣和圣徒象的态度，基督教几个教派不一致。新教只使用十字架表示　　耶稣基督，而从来不拜雕像。天主教和东正教却有很多的拜圣母、耶稣、圣徒象的活动。　　在宗教仪式的细节上，基督教几个教派存在着诸多不同。对待差异的态度上，新教允许每　　个人保留自己对圣经的理解，所以只要教派坚守使徒信经和尼西亚信经就承认它是基督教　　。天主教曾因为排除异己而有过一段不光彩的历史，但是今天，罗马教宗经过梵二会议改　　变了“教会之外无救赎”的看法，承认只要信主，爱人就能获得救赎，它还承认了基督教　　其它教会都是“救赎之路”。　　--　　爱是恒久忍耐，又有恩慈；　　爱是不嫉妒,爱是不自夸，不张狂，　　不做害羞的事，不求自己的益处，不轻易发怒，　　不计算别人的恶，不喜欢不义，只喜欢真理；　　凡事包容，凡事相信，凡事盼望，凡事忍耐。　　爱，是永不止息。

1、中华人民共和国主要宗教：道教、佛教、基督新教、天主教、伊斯兰教；中国五大宗教是指在中国具有一定历史影响，形成中华民族风范，拥有一定规模性和区域性而形成具有一定地位的信教教别，它们分别是佛教、道教、天主教、基督教（新教）、伊斯兰教。 2、中国人习惯上称之为中国五大宗教。（注：天主教和基督教（新教）不是两个宗教，而是一个宗教的两个派别，天主教、基督教（新教）和东正教三大派别同属基督教（基督宗教），中国五大宗教所称的基督教并非是指包括三大派别的基督教（基督宗教）总称，而是专指“新教”，这是中文目前的特有现象。） 3、道教是中国本土宗教，以“道”为最高信仰。道教在中国古代鬼神崇拜观念上，以黄、老道家思想为理论根据，承袭战国以来的神仙方术衍化形成。东汉末年出现大量道教组织，著名的有太平道、五斗米道。 祖天师张道陵正式创立教团组织，距今已有1800年历史。道教为多神崇拜，尊奉的神仙是将道教对“道”之信仰人格化体现。道士是道教的神职人员，全国现有住观道士3万余人。宫观是道教徒活动的场所，全国现登记开放的宫观有2千余座。 4、佛教诞生距今已有两千五百多年，是由古印度迦毗罗卫国（今尼泊尔境内）王子乔达摩·悉达多所创（参考佛诞）。西方国家普遍认为佛教起源于印度，而印度事实上也在努力塑造“佛教圣地”形象。这使得很多人产生佛祖降生在印度的错觉，这让尼泊尔民众一向不满。 佛教也是世界三大宗教之一。佛，意思是“觉者”。佛又称如来、应供、正遍知、明行足、善逝、世间解、无上士、调御丈夫、天人师、世尊。佛教重视人类心灵和道德的进步和觉悟。佛教信徒修习佛教的目的即在于依照悉达多所悟到修行方法，发现生命和宇宙的真相，最终超越生死和苦、断尽一切烦恼，得到究竟解脱。 5、新教（Protestantism），亦称基督新教，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大流派。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离罗马普世大公教会（大公的基督教）而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗，以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。 新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”、“耶稣教”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。因对罗马公教（即天主教）抱抗议态度，不承认罗马主教的教皇地位，故西方一般称基督新教为“抗罗宗”或“抗议宗”。 这词源出德文“Protestanten”（抗议者），最初指1529年在德意志帝国会议中对恢复天主教特权之决议案提出抗议的新教诸侯和城市代表，后衍为新教各教派的共同称谓。主要分布在英国、德国、瑞士、北欧五国和美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰等国。鸦片战争前后，新教相继传入中国。 6、伊斯兰教是世界性的宗教之一，与佛教、基督教并称为世界三大宗教。中国旧称大食法、大食教、天方教、清真教、回回教、回教、回回教门等。截止到2009年底，世界人口约68亿人口中，穆斯林总人数是15.7亿， 分布在204个国家和地区，占全世界的23%。

新教（Protestantism），亦称基督新教，与天主教、东正教并称为基督教三大流派。包括16世纪欧洲宗教改革运动中脱离罗马普世大公教会（大公的基督教）而产生的新宗派：路德宗、加尔文宗、安立甘宗，以及随后又从这些宗派中不断分化出来的更多宗派。新教又称“更正教”、“抗罗宗”。中国常以“基督教”一词单指新教。民间常称为耶稣教，因对罗马公教（即天主教）抱抗议态度，不承认罗马主教的教皇地位，故西方一般称基督新教为“抗罗宗”或“抗议宗”。这词源出德文“Protestanten”（抗议者），最初指1529年在德意志帝国会议中对恢复天主教特权之决议案提出抗议的新教诸侯和城市代表，后衍为新教各教派的共同称谓。主要分布在英国、德国、瑞士、北欧五国和美国、加拿大、澳大利亚、新西兰等国。鸦片战争前后，新教相继传入中国。

德国的主要宗教信仰是基督教。全国大约有5500多万人信奉两个教派中的一个， 其中约2760万人信福音新教（由24个基本上独立的路德教派、联合教派和革新教派的分会组成的联盟），2750万人信罗马天主教（普世罗马天主教会的一部分，服从罗马教宗和教廷的指导），还有一小部分人属于其他的基督教团体。

适合社会发展的，促进人类文明进步的就是好的。甚至从发展的意义来看，没有好坏之分，只有阶段性的区别而已，就像你旅行，经过海洋得乘船，经过草原得起码，都是正确的，但是过草原的时候你去乘船，显然就是不对的。

The Protestant Reformation(宗教改革) was a 16th-century split within Western Christianity initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and other early Protestants. The efforts of the self-described "reformers", who objected to ("protested") the doctrines, rituals and ecclesiastical structure of the Roman Catholic Church, led to the creation of new national Protestant churches. The Reformation was precipitated by earlier events within Europe, such as the Black Death and the Western Schism, which eroded people"s faith in the Roman Catholic Church. This, as well as many other factors, such as the mid 15th-century invention of the printing press, the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, the end of the Middle Ages, and the beginning of the modern era, contributed to the creation of Protestantism. The Roman Catholics responded with a Counter-Reformation, led by the Jesuit order, which established influence over large parts of Europe such as Poland. In general, northern Europe, with the exception of Ireland and pockets of Britain, turned Protestant. Southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while fierce battles which turned into warfare took place in central Europe. The largest of the new churches were the Lutherans (mostly in Germany and Scandinavia) and the Reformed churches (mostly in Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Scotland). There were many smaller bodies as well. The most common dating begins in 1517, when Luther published The Ninety-Five Theses, and concludes in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars. 希望能帮到您~ 欢迎讨论

唉，我连中国的问题还不透彻呢，美国 的更不清楚。

My new invention:the near future,I will have a new invention!Recently,I saw frequently mother boils water,on that pot always has the residual,I use teacher protestantism,expand with heat and contract with cold"s principle,burns very much the first pot hotly,then pours into the cold water again,only listens,sound of something being struck or falling to the ground!,In pot"s residual,has not had,this is my innovation!

倒霉的事情发生了

EDUCATION IN ENGLAND (II)Introduction The events that lead directly to the birth of the modern system of education in England are to be sought mainly in the second half of the 19th-century.There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century who were in favour of widespread education, however, for a number of reasons, they did not have the backing either of the government or of the people. Later on in the century leaders of the Chartist Movement and the Radicals were in favour of some sort of national system of education. However, it is safe to say that there was no widespread desire for the education of the population as a whole. In the social legislation of this period education did not become a real priority until the year of the first Education Act, 1870.Obstacles in way of a national system of free compulsory educationThe establishment of a national system of education came late in England mainly because of the social, economic and religious climate of the century.1.1. The higher classes of society had no interest in advocating the cultural development of the working classes. On the contrary, the effects of the revolutionary spirit in Europe reinforced conservative attitudes that were certainly not conducive to advocating the development of the critical faculties of the people as a whole.2.Neither did the vast majority of the working class have any real interest in education. Child labour was common practice in this period and working-class families were very reluctant to give up the earnings of their children for the benefit of education. The employment of children continued to increase even after 1850. 3.Also the effect of Protestantism, with its emphasis on individualism, personal salvation, the private reading and interpretation of Scripture, ran contrary to any sort of collectivist thought. 4.Religious conflict also delayed the establishment of a national system of education. One example of this can be seen in the reaction to the clauses regarding education in the 1843 Factory Bill. There was violent opposition on the part of nonconformists and Catholics alike because, according to the Bill, headmasters had to be of the Church of England. Furthermore, the children were to be taught the catechism and be present at liturgical celebrations as well as service on Sundays. The Bill failed. 5.The idea of secular education had never been popular during the century. Education had almost exclusively been under the control of the established church. Furthermore, we should not forget the conflict between secular and religious thought that characterised the century, especially the latter half. Given the cultural and religious climate of the century it became obvious that any nondenominational system of education would be well nigh impossible. It was only in the 20th century, with the rise of indifference towards religious teaching, that general nondenominational schooling became possible. Denominational education was further reinforced by the increase in the Catholic population due to the wave of Irish immigrants during and following the Great Famine in Ireland (1845-50). 6.It was also thought that the voluntary school system was quite successful and that it was better not to encourage government intervention. Furthermore, the dominant laissez-faire theory of the time meant that, as in most areas, any direct intervention on the part of the state in the field of education was to be discouraged. The state was only too happy to leave education to the private sector, voluntary or otherwise. Education could not constitute an exception to the tenaciously upheld doctrine of laissez-faire. However, these voluntary institutions did not have the influence or power to construct a nationwide system. Economic development and the increase of wealth were seen to be priority issues. The question of education only attracted very limited attention. Tendencies and events favouring national education Not everything was negative; there were quite distinct undercurrents of thought beginning to emerge that eventually led to the 1870 Education Act. During the century, and particularly during the second half, we have the beginnings of a national system of education that owes its birth to many factors. 1.From the first decade of the 19th-century there emerged indications of new thinking in the field of education. Of particular interest is the Bill introduced into the House of commons by Samuel Whitbread in 1807. 2.In 1807 Samuel Whitbread proposed to deal with the whole of the Poor Law with the introduction of a Bill in the House of Commons. Of particular interest is the first part of the Bill, which dealt specifically with education. Whitbread advocated making the parish responsible for education and proposed that each child should have two years of education between the ages of 7 and 14. He thought this would reduce crime and pauperism. 3.It was considered too expensive to implement and it was also thought that the introduction of such a scheme would take the people away from manual work and make them dissatisfied with their social situation. Although unsuccessful the thought of generalised education for the masses was even then being expressed and was later to be reiterated constantly throughout the century eventually leading up to the 1870 Education Act. 4.The idea of widespread education was also helped by the gradual increase in collectivist thought especially after 1865. This is quite evident in the works of Carlyle and Ruskin. It was only after this date that any idea of widespread state intervention in the field of education could find fertile ground. 5.The various Factory Acts of 1833, 1844, and 1867 were another contributory factor towards the general tendency towards national education. These acts focused not only on the condition of workers but they also had the effect of imposing certain restrictions on child labour, which in turn favoured the opportunity of an alternative: education for the child. 6.In the second half of the 19th-century crime and pauperism increased, so did riots strikes and social unrest. The commercial and manufacturing supremacy of Britain was in decline and this was seen to be mostly due to the fact that other European countries had a more developed technical education system. Political stability and economic prosperity now seemed to be associated with the education of the people. Education now seemed financially viable. 7.In 1869 two other societies were established: the Education League, which turned secular and the National Education Union, which was conservative and Anglican. It was mainly due to these two societies that the Education Act of 1870 was passed. The Education Act of 1870It was with the Education Act of 1870, also known as the "Forster Act", that we have the real birth of the modern system of education in England. This not only gave rise to a national system of state education but also assured the existence of a dual system - voluntary denominational schools and nondenominational state schools.The act required the establishment of elementary schools nationwide. These were not to replace or duplicate what already existed but supplement those already run by the churches, private individuals and guilds.The country was divided into school districts and in those areas where there was inadequate provision school boards were to be elected. These were responsible for raising sufficient funds to maintain the schools. The schools were often called " board schools".These elementary schools had to be non-denominational. The school boards could charge a weekly fee not exceeding 9 pence. For a limited period the school boards could pay the fees if the parents were unable to do so. The Voluntary Schools could also receive such payment of fees from the school boards.They had to guarantee attendance for all children in their respective districts between the ages of 5 and 13. The School Board could appoint officers to enforce attendance. These officers or "Board Men", as they were commonly known, became one of those terribly menacing figures firmly implanted in the minds of young schoolboys. This figure was an effective deterrent in playing truant. All the more menacing because the child could only picture him in his imagination (if he faithfully attended school, that is!!). He was also known as the School Attendance Officer.Religious instruction was an integral part of the school curriculum but was not compulsory. This was to be nondenominational.Since 1870 Voluntary Schools declined except Roman Catholic Schools because Boards Schools provided better buildings and higher pay for teachers.Elementary education became effectively free with the passing of the 1891 Education Act.

Marxism is a radical philosophy, a revolutionary theory of social change authored by Karl Marx, the most important of all socialist thinkers. It is a fusion of German philosophy, mainly the dialectics of Hegel , French socialism, and British political economy. This combination makes Marxism unique among other philosophies in history. The fusion itself did not happen quickly out in a thin air. It was a tedious process out of Marx"s critical observation of society and history using the scientific method. It is revolutionary because it is dialectic, and was born out of his involvement of the class struggles happening at that time in Europe.Karl Marx was born in May 5th, 1818, into a middle class Jewish family in Trier, Germany. His father, a respectable lawyer, later converted to Christianity for security reasons. At 17, Marx enrolled in the University of Bonn to study law. There he met his future wife Jenny von Westphalen, whose father had interested him in romantic literature and in the utopian socialism of Saint-Simon. The next year, his father sent him to the University of Berlin. He abandoned his pursuit on romantic poetry and began focusing on the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel, the most influential thinker in Berlin at that time. Marx became involved with the intellectuals who called themselves the Young Hegelians. The Hegelians were not a unified group but composed of two competing tendencies, the Left and Right Hegelians. Marx joined the radical Left, who accepted Hegel"s revolutionary dialectical method but rejected his conservative views.Hegel"s dialectics explained that the world is a contradictory process, a progression of opposing elements called the thesis and the anti-thesis, resulting to the rise of the synthesis. As a process of two contradictory elements in a union, the dialectics is, also viewed as the unity of the opposites. Hegel suggested that history is a contradictory progression of ideas passing through different stages, which would finally arrive at the truth, or the Absolute Idea. The Absolute Idea is his other word for God. Marx took the dialectic theory, but rejected Hegel"s conclusion as idealistic. He said that Hegel"s dialectics was “standing on its head”, not on its feet. To put the dialectics back on its feet, Marx argued that to understand the real driving force of history, one has to look critically at society, the world, nature, and the universe. By using the scientific method, critical analysis will lead to better understanding of the world. This is the dialectical materialist approach.According to Marx, humans, in their drive for survival have to meet their basic needs first before everything else, before they could practice religion, politics, culture, and etc…To meet their material needs is to produce. Thus, production is the driving force of history. When production, at one point in time, fails to provide the majority of people"s needs, society falls into a crisis, which causes social conflicts. Marx and his co-author, Friedrich Engels, wrote in the Communist Manifesto (1848) that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle.” Marxism itself is a philosophy born out of the contradiction within the modern economic system called capitalism. Without capitalism, there would have been no Marxism.Capitalism was born in Europe in the 18th and 19th century out of the revolutionary struggles of the new emerging class, the bourgeoisie. Before their rise, the Church dominated politics, economics, and religion, ruling the continent by feudalism. Under feudalism, production was labored by the peasants ruled by the landlords and the clergy. Superstition dominated most peoples" thoughts propagated by the Church. However, in a few centuries in what historians call the Medieval Period, a class of small merchants had laid out the networks of the rising economy called mercantilism. They were considered as social outcasts by the landlords who held the Catholic moral(or prejudice), believing that getting rich by selling or lending money with interest was very sinful. The aristocrats, however, were too proud to admit their appreciation of the goods delivered from afar by the merchants. The growth of small market economies gave accidental results along the process, like technological advances, for example. Their trading centers grew from small towns into big medieval cities called burghs, where the French word, bourgeois or city dweller came from.Feudalism, did not have total ideological control over society that it ruled. The church leaders" deadly persecution or Inquisition on freedom of thought did not stop a new generation of thinkers to challenge their authority. The Church itself was shook by schisms and the movement called Protestantism led by Martin Luther. In the heat of the conflicts masked in religion, it was no coincidence that the merchants supported the Protestants ― who preached that prosperity was the result of hard work and was highly moral. They finally found a kind of Christianity that suited well with their economic interest. The highly cultural period called the Renaissance, also, gave encouragement to a generation of freethinkers. A couple of centuries later came the dawn of the Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason. Europe was now electrified by progressive thoughts that had greatly affected the arts, science, philosophy, and other fields of knowledge that was against the interest of the Catholic Church.Using Marxist dialectical analysis on this period of history, feudal Europe under the Catholic Church was the thesis. It was ridden with contradictions within i.e. its undemocratic and very oppressive rule on the majority that resulted into crises. The anti-thesis was growing power of the merchants that eventually challenged the church and the nobility. Feudalism, a backward system compared to the rising capitalism became futile in the face of technological advances favoring the bourgeoisie. Its armed hostility to science and reason during the Inquisition would eventually backfire in the irony of history. Spain may had all the gold plundered from her colonies, but England had the Industrial Revolution. In military warfare, the Spanish galleons were no match to the English steam-powered battleships. French feudalism embodied in the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV was ignorant of its coming downfall. The Great French Revolution of 1789 was the fullest expression of feudalism"s anti-thesis or negation. Louis XVI paid the price, literally, with his head when it was negated by the guillotine. With its economic power, the revolutionary bourgeoisie eventually became the political masters of the situation, issuing the historical Declaration of the Rights of Man. The modern institution of democracy had sown the seeds of socialism inside the womb of capitalism.Marxism was only possible when the political, philosophical, and economic ground in Europe became favorable now to the bourgeoisie. It took the politics of the French socialists but rejected their utopianism. It applied the dialectics of Hegel in analyzing the changing society but without his idealism and mysticism. Marx referred to the works of the British economists, Adam Smith and David Ricardo on capitalism"s dynamic productivity, but criticized their denial of the real source of profit ― the workers. His thorough research about capitalism in the London library during his exile made it possible to complete the book, Das Kapital(1867), an in depth dialectical analysis on capitalism.Marx saw capitalism as the most dynamic system throughout history. It has dominated the world within just three centuries. The endless drive for profit constantly revolutionizes technology. Reading the Communist Manifesto(while disregarding 19th century references to European history) would give one the impression that it was written for today"s generation. Capitalism has created vast wealth but also enormous poverty, a kind of crisis very peculiar from the rest of the crises in history. In ancient slave and feudal societies, crises arise out of scarcity, whereas capitalist crises today are the results of overproduction. Too many cars on sale, but too many who can not afford to buy them. Too much food stuffs in the grocery and the marketplace, letting the unsold goods to rot, while there are too many hungry and malnourished people. The United States, the world"s richest country ranks 37th in health care services.Even after Karl Marx"s death on March 14, 1883, Marxism still remains a clear perspective on modern society. Capitalism, that has created vast inequality and modern social conflicts, will never be exempted from the laws of Hegelian dialectics. Because the corporate system is alive and dynamic, it is subject to contradictions. And contradictions lead to revolutionary situations. Optimistically, Marx already saw its agents of negation. He saw the new revolutionary class, the proletariat, as the “gravediggers” of capitalism. He advocated for the workers of the world to unite, to redistribute the wealth that they have created in the first place, and create a more humane system based on human need not corporate greed. Once the working class achieve complete victory over capital, humanity will then reach the end of history. His revolutionary ideas written 165 years ago still remains relevant today more than ever to fight for a just society.帮你大概看了一下原作者是Eric Goden Lomocso （不是什么大师级别）在他的外国博客上找的。你用他的文章应该不容易被发现。希望能帮到你

没度过

The first to use the English reading the war and hold them; Read history massiness and fascinating; Read the cultural inheritance and hand in photograph reflect. He like standing on a mountain high, see thousands of years ago with the changes in the feet replacement change as even a vapour. He like on the stage with speaker, with deep feeling tone about the continent in this life. He is the fall of a city and were left feeling useless), for the barbarian of civilization and trample dejected, for civilians again and again of misery and wipe away tears were Shouting. When we are in the observer of the identity to re-examine the once these story, not the winners of the perfect, also lack the loser of merit, instead it is one of the fresh characters and the story of the ups and downs of the benefits. Christian was reduced, but they are angry at that time is the schools of thought contend and tried to teach a single big blame, Mohammed of in order to make his dream come out on top

　　每到冬天，是小孩子最开心的时候，因为圣诞节要来了。下面是由我为大家整理的“关于圣诞节作文英语”欢迎阅读，仅供参考，希望对你有所帮助。 　　篇一：关于圣诞节作文英语 　　After a long time today is Christmas, I feel like a blooming flower happy, many students also like me excited and happy, the school principal said to engage in activities, as long as through four checkpoints to draw, to be fair, everyone can find a partner to play, I immediately came to the classroom, with my classmates became partners. 　　The afternoon activity finally started! My classmates and I can not wait to come to the first level, the content is infrared, infrared, is actually just some rope. I arrived at the end point at very fast speed, the students is huge, so it is very slow to reach the end point, I was a bit disappointed in her. An important role to the next level but she, second is a puzzle, she led the way than the other team members answered many questions, I am happy to jump to the sky, but I have a few. The next level is the third content is the maze, I walked around with her walk east around the west, north south walk walk, both he and I nearly fainted in the maze, oh, really annoying this maze, but a house with tips, as long as the correct answers will be able to know where the export two, I was soon out of the maze, I hope the next Christmas will no longer engage in this maze activity sincerely hope. Finally to the last pass, fourth, yeah! The game of the fourth pass is to grab a stool, and he is so fat that he snatches a number of stools. 　　So, I"m very happy. I hope it will be like this next Christmas. 　　过了好久好久今天终于圣诞节来了，我的心情像绽放的花儿一样开心，很多同学也像我一样兴奋和开心高兴，学校搞活动，校长说只要通过四道关卡就可以去抽奖了，公平起见，每个人可以找一位搭档一起来玩儿，我立即来到教室，跟同学一起成为了搭档。 　　下午活动终于开始了！我和同学迫不及待的来到了第一个关卡，内容是过红外线，红外线，其实只不过是几根绳子而已，我以非常快的速度到达了终点，同学体型庞大，所以很慢才能到达终点，我对她有一点的失望。不过下一关她可起到了重要的作用，第二关内容是猜字谜，她一马当先比其他小组的成员答对了许多题，我乐的快要蹦到天上去了，但我答得很少。下一关也就是第三关内容是闯迷宫，我跟她到处走东走走西走走，北走走南走走，我跟他都差点晕在迷宫里了，哎呀，真烦人这迷宫，不过一个屋上面有提示，只要答对的题就可以知道出口在哪了，我俩很快就走出了迷宫，希望下次圣诞节不要再搞这个迷宫活动了衷心地希望。终于到了最后一关第四关，耶！第四关的游戏是抢凳子，同学他很胖所以抢到了多个凳子。 　　所以呢，我很开心。希望下次圣诞节也能这样。 　　篇二：关于圣诞节作文英语 　　A few days is Christmas, we have a family in the living room to talk about how to spend this christmas. Mother will give me what gift? Lying on the bed, I was thinking about the problem, I fell asleep. The sudden boom of a sound, as if what has fallen, Santa Claus jumped down from the chimney, I saw not far from the footsteps, ah, Santa Claus really came, I saw him holding a big bag, wearing DaGongPao, white beard, he put on a Christmas tree in my bed, I saw hung with lights, bright, like little stars, there are several small gifts. I was surprised, I couldn"t resist, wow, very good! 　　Suddenly, I got a little surprised. He said to me, "go, I will take you to the other kids." I immediately agreed, and he climbed the chimney, let me sit on his sleigh, the way we laugh and sing, really happy, we sent out a gift, he brought me back, he sat on the sled on the right, tell me a story, I listened with relish. At the door, he took me out of the chimney, and he sat on the sled, and then flew away, and I went back to the bedroom, and in the glittering Christmas trees, and I was very happy. Suddenly, I was scared by a burst of voice, I climb up a look, which has a Christmas tree, which has a father, the mother to call me, hey, this is a dream, if there is a Santa Claus that should have much good ah! 　　还有几天就是圣诞节了，我们一家人在客厅里议论着该怎样过这个圣诞节。妈妈会送我什么礼物呢？躺在床上，我还在想着这个问题，我不知不觉地睡着了。 突然咚的一声，好像什么东西掉了，原来是圣诞老人从烟囱里跳了下来，只见不远处传来一阵脚步声，呀，圣诞老人真的来了，只见他手拿一个大袋子，穿着大红袍，雪白的胡子，他把一棵圣诞树放在了我的床头，只见上面挂满了彩灯，亮晶晶的，真像一颗颗小星星，还有几个小礼物。我又惊又喜，我再也忍不住了，哇，太好了！ 　　我突然把圣诞老人吓了一跳，他对我说：“走吧，我带你去别的小朋友家送礼物吧。”我马上答应了，和他爬过烟囱，让我坐上他的雪橇，一路上我们又唱又笑，真开心，我们送完了礼物，他又把我送了回去，他坐在雪橇右边，给我讲故事，我听得津津有味。到了家门口，他把我从烟囱里送进去，然后他坐上雪橇，一会就飞得无影无踪了，我马上回到了卧室，在金光闪闪的圣诞树前又唱又跳，开心极了。 突然，我被一阵说话声吓了一跳，我爬起来一看，哪有圣诞树，哪有圣诞老人，原来是妈妈要叫我，嗨，这是一场梦，要是真有圣诞老人那该有多好啊！ 　　篇三：关于圣诞节作文英语 　　Christmas, annual Christian holiday commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ. Most members of the Roman Catholic Church and followers of Protestantism celebrate Christmas on December 25, and many celebrate on the evening of December 24 as well. Members of the Eastern Orthodox Church usually delay their most important seasonal ceremonies until January 6, when they celebrate Epiphany, a commemoration of the baptism of Jesus. Epiphany also traditionally commemorates the arrival of the Three Wise Men of the East in Bethlehem (near Jerusalem, Israel), where they adored the infant Jesus and presented him with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. The official Christmas season, popularly known as either Christmastide or the Twelve Days of Christmas, extends from the anniversary of Christ"s birth on December 25 to the feast of Epiphany on January 6. 　　Christmas is based on the story of Jesus" birth as described in the Gospel according to Matthew (see Matthew 1:18-2:12) and the Gospel according to Luke (see Luke 1:26-56). Roman Catholics first celebrated Christmas, then known as the Feast of the Nativity, as early as 336 ad. The word Christmas entered the English language sometime around 1050 as the Old English phrase Christes maesse, meaning “festival of Christ.” Scholars believe the frequently used shortened form of Christmas—Xmas—may have come into use in the 13th century. The X stands for the Greek letter chi, an abbreviation of Khristos (Christ), and also represents the cross on which Jesus was crucified. 　　12月25日，是基督教徒纪念耶稣诞生的日子，称为圣诞节。从12月24日于翌年1月6日为圣诞节节期。节日期间，各国基督教徒都举行隆重的纪念仪式。圣诞节本来是基督教徒的节日，由于人们格外重视，它便成为一个全民性的节日，是西方国家一年中最盛大的节日，可以和新年相提并论，类似我国过春节。西方人以红、绿、白三色为圣诞色，圣诞节来临时家家户户都要用圣诞色来装饰。红色的有圣诞花和圣诞蜡烛。 　　绿色的是圣诞树。它是圣诞节的主要装饰品，用砍伐来的杉、柏一类呈塔形的常青树装饰而成。上面悬挂着五颜六色的彩灯、礼物和纸花，还点燃着圣诞蜡烛。红色与白色相映成趣的是圣诞老人，他是圣诞节活动中最受欢迎的人物。西方儿童在圣诞夜临睡之前，要在壁炉前或枕头旁放上一只袜子，等候圣诞老人在他们入睡后把礼物放在袜子内。在西方，扮演圣诞老人也是一种习俗。

你可以从以下几个方面着手：1.•the difference between the United Kingdom, Great Britain, and England:回答：• The United Kingdom: a country that consists of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. • Great Britain: the name of the island northwest of France and east of Ireland that consists of three somewhat autonomous（自治的） regions: England, Wales and Scotland. • England is part of Great Britain, which is part of the United Kingdom. • The U.K. includes England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. England. Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland are not countries but the United Kingdom is. • The Highlanders: the Scots who live in the mountainous regions of the Highlands in Northern Scotland. • They are proud, independent and hardy people who maintain their strong cultural identity. They mainly live by farming sheep in mountain areas or fishing on the coasts and islands.• The reputation of the Scots: inventive, hardworking, serious-minded and cautious with money. (In the past, they were pioneer settlers and empire builders in places like America, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.)• their distinctive national dress: kilt• Bagpipes• The Scots can be recognized by and their particular style of speech and accent . 2宗教：回答：• The Catholic Church: refers to the Christian church headed by the Pope. All members of the church accept the gospel of Christ and the teachings of the Bible. Any revolt against the traditional Christian faith was “heresy”. • In the Middle Ages, the Popes was extremely powerful. In the 16th century, some of the actual beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church were questioned by Protestant doctrines and there was a great deal of persecution by Catholics. • The Protestant Church: refers to the Christian church whose faith and practice originated with the principles of the Reformation. As the Pope"s political power and religious authority declined in the `6th, Protestant churches sprang up in Northern Europe in opposition to the established Roman Catholic Church. In Britain, Protestantism gradually became the dominant faith in the Elizabethan age. • Christianity: refers to all doctrines and religious groups based on the teaching of Jesus Christ. It was founded in the 1st century in Palestine. Jesus Christ is accepted by Christians as the son of God, and his teaching is contained in the Bible, the holy book of Christianity. In Europe, Christianity is divided into three major groups. Roman Catholic Church, Protestant Church and Orthodox Eastern Church(东正教).3.学校的不同：回答：British Educaion• Public schools: are the secondary boarding schools that prepare students chiefly for universities. They are supported entirely by fees and private funs.• The name “public school” is traditional one with little meaning today, since far from being public these schools are restricted to a comparatively small section of the population.• “Public school” is a traditional name with little meaning today, because far from being public, public schools are restricted to a comparatively small section of the population.• Some people feel, the greatest argument for public schools is the strikingly high proportion of ex-public-school boys occupying senior posts in the government, the armed forces, the church, t he universities, the professions, and even in business. They say, this proves the superiority of a public school education.• It was the public schools that laid the foundations of English education.• In England, parents who are rich and conservative in politics will most probably send their children to public schools. • Three famous public schools in Britain: Eton, Harrow and Rugby.• Prep schools: also called preparatory schools, they are private elementary schools in Britain, which prepare their students for public schools.• The prep school curriculum differs considerably from that of the junior school, and there is a distinctive boarding atmosphere. At the age of thirteen, the students will take the “common entrance” examination for admission to a “public school”.• The prep school curriculum differs considerably from that of the junior school, since its main target is not the “eleven plus,” but the “common entrance” examination at the age of 13, for admission to a public schools.• The public schools today are no longer as superior and exclusive as they used to be. • Firstly, their perfect system, their house system and their tradition of sport have been widely adopted in state secondary schools, and ,many grammar schools have academic records which many a public school might envy.• Secondly, many so-called public schools are dependent on an annual grant from the central government, in return for which they award between a quarter and a half of their places to pupils paying reduced fees or none at all. • Thirdly, all public schools too, except a few of recognized standard, are liable to be inspected by the State.• There is thus a gradual progress away from exclusiveness in British education.• Oxford University was founded in the twelfth century. It contains about thirty separate colleges.• Cambridge University was founded in the thirteenth century. It contains about twenty separate colleges.• There four Scottish universities dating from the 15th and 16th centuries. They are St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. • London University has far more students than any other British universities. • “red brick”: is a slightly contemptuous term to refer to the large group of nineteenth-and-twentieth-century universities and university colleges in Britain.• “red brick” describes their construction, which is contrasted with the more dignified and solidlooking ancient stone architecture of Oxford and Cambridge. • The two widely admired features of Oxford and Cambridge : are te college system and the tutorial system.• The college system of Oxford and Cambridge: is one whereby all students live in college during at least part of their course. The value of this system lies in fostering a community spirit in which a useful mingling of intelligence can take place. • The tutorial system of Oxford and Cambridge: is one whereby each student gets personal tuition once a week in his tutor"s own room.• Open University: was founded in Britain in 1969 for people who may not get the opportunity for higher education for economic or social reasons. It is open to everybody, and does not demand the same formal qualifications as the other universities. It is non-residential. Lectures are broadcast on TV and radio. At the end of the course, successful students are awarded a university degree.4.• The Welfare State回答：• 1) Britain: a welfare state in the sense that it should ensure, as far as it can, that nobody should be without the means for the minimum necessities of life as the result of unemployment, old age, sickness or over —large families. • 2) The system of national insurance pays out benefits to people who are unemployed, or unable to earn because they are old or sick.• 3) Free or nearly free medical and dental care is provided for everyone under the National Health Service. • 4) Supplementary benefits are provided for people who live below the minimum standard.the retirement pension• 1) It may be received by any man from the age of 65 (provided he has made his weekly contributions to the fund) if he ceases to work, and by any woman from the age of 60. • 2) A man who continues to work after the age of 65 gets no pension at first, but when he is over 70 he gets a bigger pension. • 3) People may receive additional pensions by paying higher contributions while they are working. • 4) There are in addition non-state methods of providing for retirement pensions.Family allowances• (1) They are paid directly out of public money contributed by taxpayers. • (2) For the first child of a family, nothing is paid, but an allowance is made for all children after the first. • (3) The payments continue until a child leaves school and are subject to income tax. • (4) There are special payments for widows who have children;payments continue until a child leaves school and are subject to income tax. • (5) There are special payments for widows who have children."meals on wheels"• "meals on wheels" : refers to meals which are prepared by the public authorities in a central kitchen and then distributed to infirm old people by women who belong to voluntary organizations, using their own cars. • "meals on wheels" (1) It is a kind of unpaid service voluntarily performed by public- spirited people. (2) Meals are distributed to infirm old people in old peoples" homes by women who belong to voluntary organizations, using their own cars.• The grades of the doctors in hospitals : the “housemen“(实习医生) or residents(住院医生) are in the lowest grade and the Consultants are in the highest grade. • "housemen" or residents: refers to those newly-qualified doctors who spend a year or two living in hospitals gaining experience under supervision.• the Consultants(会诊医生) must not work in the hospital for the whole of their time. They may work in the hospital either for the whole of their time or for part of their time.3.

英国是世界上第一个工业化国家，亦为一个有多元文化和开放思想的社会。英国是联合国安理会常任理事国，首都伦敦是欧洲最大和最具国际特色的城市。 主要宗教：新教。 基督新教（Protestantism）是由16世纪宗教改革运动中脱离罗马天主教会的教会和基督徒形成的一系列新宗派的统称，简称新教，或译为更正教、反对教，也经常被直接称为基督教，是与天主教、东正教并列，为广义上的基督宗教的三大派别之一。 法国（La France），全称为法兰西共和国，是第一次世界大战的主要战胜国之一，虽在第二次世界大战中期战败且沦陷于德国，但在国际上仍然有一定的影响力，因而成为联合国安理会常任理事国。 法国不仅在工农业方面非常发达，而且也是世界文化中心之一，首都位于巴黎。 主要宗教：天主教。 天主教是基督宗教的主要宗派之一，又称公教，自明朝时就沿用的名称“天主教”，已成为正式的中文代名词。在基督宗教的所有公教会之中，罗马公教会（罗马天主教会）的会众最为庞大，全世界人数有11.3亿，占世界总人口17%。 美利坚合众国（USA）是一个由五十个州和一个联邦直辖特区组成的宪政联邦共和制国家，是个多文化和多民族的国家，是联合国安理会五个常任理事国之一。其在经济、政治、科技、军事、娱乐等诸多领域的巨大影响力均领衔全球，是目前世界上唯一的超级大国。 主要宗教：新教、天主教、摩门教、犹太教。 摩门教(Mormonism)，正确的名称是耶稣基督后期圣徒教会(The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints)。 犹太教（Judaism）是世界三大一神信仰中，最早而且最古老的宗教，也是犹太民族的生活方式及信仰。犹太教的主要诫命与教义，来自托拉（托辣），即圣经的前五卷书。 俄罗斯联邦，简称俄罗斯或俄联邦，是资本主义国家，是世界上面积最大的国家，是联合国安理会五个常任理事国之一。今日的俄国是一个受国际承认的的世界性大国，亦是世界第二军事强国，也已成为全球最大的天然气出口国及OPEC以外最大的原油输出国。 主要宗教：东正教。 东正教（Eastern Orthodox Church）又称正教会或正统教会，是基督教的主要宗派之一，是指依循由东罗马帝国所流传下来的基督教传统的教会，它是与天主教、基督新教并立的基督教三大派别之一，目前也是第二大教派。

LanguageThe English language is the de facto official language of the United Kingdom, and is spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the British population.However, individual countries within the UK have frameworks for the promotion of their indigenous languages. In Wales, all pupils at state schools must study Welsh until aged 16, and the Welsh Language Act 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages should be treated equally in the public sector, so far as is reasonable and practicable. Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act, passed by the Scottish Parliament in 2005, recognised Gaelic as an official language of Scotland, commanding equal respect with English, and required the creation of a national plan for Gaelic to provide strategic direction for the development of the Gaelic language.The culture of the United Kingdom refers to the patterns of human activity and symbolism associated with the United Kingdom and the British people. It is informed by the UK"s history as a developed island country, being a major power, and, its composition of four countries—England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales—each of which have preserved and distinct customs, cultures and symbolism.LiteratureAt its formation, the United Kingdom immediately inherited the literary traditions of England and Scotland, including the earliest existing native literature written in the Celtic languages, Anglo-Saxon literature and more recent English literature including the works of Geoffrey Chaucer, William Shakespeare and John Milton. The first recorded association of Valentine"s Day with romantic love is in Chaucer"s Parlement of Foules 1382. Sending Valentine"s Day cards became hugely popular in Britain in the late 18th century, a practice that has since spread to other nations. Today in the UK just under half the population spend money on their Valentines.就这个

同意一楼的！！

　　基督教，是一个相信耶稣基督为救主的一神论宗教。基督教、佛教、伊斯兰教是世界三大宗教，估计现在全球共有15亿至21亿的人信仰基督教，占世界总人口25%-30%。最早期的基督教只有一个教会，但在基督教的历史进程中却分化为许多派别，主要有天主教（中文也可译为公教、罗马公教）、东正教、新教（中文又常称为基督教）三大派别，以及其他一些影响较小的派别。中文的“基督教”一词有时被用于专指基督新教，这似乎是中文的特有现象。　　基督教（希腊语：Χριστιανισμu03ccu03c2、拉丁语：Christianismus）是以信仰耶稣基督为救世主的宗教。天主教(拉丁语：Ecclesiam catholicam)、新教(德语：Protestantismus、法语：Protestantisme、英语：Protestantism)、东正教(希腊语：Ορθu03ccδοξη Εκκλησu03afα、教会斯拉夫语：Правослаu0301виu0465)、基督教马龙派等统称基督教——中文中“基督教”往往特指新教（又俗称“耶稣教”），三大教派（天主教、东正教和新教）和基督教马龙派的统称一般用“基督宗教”这个词。但在本词条中，“基督教”指“基督宗教”，即总称，而不是新教。　　天主教是基督宗教的主要宗派之一，又称公教，自明朝时就沿用的名称“天主教”，已成为正式的中文代名词。在基督宗教的所有公教会之中，罗马公教会（罗马天主教会）的会众最为庞大，全世界人数有11.3亿，占世界总人口17%，因此“公教会”（天主教会）一词往往指的是“与罗马教宗共融的天主教会”，目前天主教会也是所有基督宗教的教会中最为庞大的教会。　　东正教 （英语：Eastern Orthodox Church） 又称正教、希腊正教、东方正教，是基督教其中的一个派别，主要是指依循由东罗马帝国（又称“拜占庭帝国”）所流传下来的基督教传统的教会，它是与天主教、基督新教并立的基督教三大派别之一，“正教”的希腊语（Orthodxia）意思是正统。如果以“东部正统派”的主要的和狭义的定义来分，“东部”教会里人数最多的教会是俄罗斯正教会和罗马正教会。而欧洲正教会（不分东西边）最古老的则是希腊正教会。若是以英语系国家的西方人惯用的用法来分，“东部正统派”有较广的定义，也包含了“东方正统教会”（“Oriental Orthodox”中文字面意思和东正教一样，但两者是不同的教会）。

Culture of the Renaissance The Renaissance was the beginning of political institutions with a commercial economy and the encouragement of education, arts, and music. It was a period of new inventions and believes. Renaissance actually means "rebirth". It was first used by a French historian Jules Michelet. Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt said it was the time period between Italian painters Giotto and Michelangelo. He also said it was the birth of modern humanity after a long period of decay. The Italian Renaissance began in Florence, Milan, and Venice. These cities were created in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as new commercial developments, which allowed them to expand into mercantile societies that greatly contrast with the traditional society of medieval Europe. Renaissance historians rejected the medieval Christian views of history. They were often known as humanists. Humanism was another cultural break with medieval tradition. Scholars under its ideas viewed classical texts on their own terms instead of Christian justifications. They also wanted to produce free and educated citizens, instead of priests and monks. These humanistic studies were supported by leading families like the Medici of Florence, Papal of Rome and the Doges of Venice. The Renaissance period also made progress in medicine, anatomy, mathematics, and especially astronomy. Geography was transformed by new knowledge gained from explorations. The invention of the printing press was also created, which made knowledge easier to achieve and literacy became more wide spread. Gunpowder transformed warfare. In political subjects Renaissance theorists like Machiavelli said that the central task of government was to maintain security and peace, not preserve liberty and justice. Religion especially changed during the Renaissance. In the Middle ages people were primarily concerned with serving the church and getting to heaven. The increase of in arts and education gave people something to look forward to, and a life to life worth living. Because of the increase of literacy people learned that the Catholic Church only told them what they wanted them to hear. This caused many to break away from the church and form Protestant religions. Many great minds were also produced in the Renaissance times. Leonardo da Vinci was one of these. Although he was not highly thought of in his time, he had many great works of art such as the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper. He now is thought of as a great inventor also. He was given the credit of coming up with the helicopter. He also did autopsies to learn more about human anatomy. Another great man was a German monk, Martin Luther. He taught Biblical studies at the University of Wittenberg. Luther"s beliefs challenged the church. Although many people agreed with his ideas, he was eventually excommunicated from the church and he started Protestantism. The Renaissance was a time of awakening for the world. A beginning to widespread knowledge and an end to ignorance. Creative minds every where were going to work and finally being appreciated for it. To many the Renaissance period was thought to be the end of the darkness.

这不本来就是中文吗?

个人学习法语的感觉是，时间久了（自然接触的名词就多了），便有一种神奇的感知能力，读出一个名词的时候，靠发音就能感觉出这个名词是阴性的还是阳性的，也许这也是法语是一门优美的语言的一个反映吧。它给了这种感知能力很好的理论支持；其实我更想说出的一点是，法语名词分阴阳性也许并不是生硬的规定，而是这门语言的血肉，就好像“如果法语动词没有变位，我们在说它时会是怎样一番景象？会有现在这样的韵律感吗？”好吧也许这种方法并不“有效”，但我相信这样一句话：很轻易就能掌握的东西，别人也可以；花时间精力的，才是有价值的。个人是很喜欢法语发音的，例如 le papillon多优美啊，如果变成 la papillon，会不会觉得怪怪的呢..

他们两人的家庭背景和时代背景十分相似。泰罗和法约尔，都出生在富裕的资产阶级家庭，良好的家庭环境为他们的求学生涯提供了保障。两人都生活在19世纪工业大发展的时代，时势造英雄，机器化大生产提供了泰罗和法约尔进行管理实践的广阔舞台。还有，两人都是实践中滚爬摸打锻炼出来的管理专家，他们的大师地位来自于管理实践而不是来自于学院书斋。所以，两人有着极大的相似性。 在管理发展史上，法约尔是与泰罗并驾齐驱的古典管理理论创始人之一，二人处于同一时代，且都有工程师背景。所不同的是，泰罗开始是作为普通工人进入工厂的，其后主要从事工程技术工作，把工作的重点放在作业现场上，从工业等级制的底层向上研究。法约尔则从进入企业开始，就参加了企业的管理集团，以后又担任了大公司的最高领导，并在法国的多种机构从事过管理方面的调查和教学工作，他集中注意于经理人员并向下研究。由于个人的经历不同，泰罗对管理的研究是从工业等级的一端——车床旁边的车工开始的，而法约尔则是从另一端——办公桌旁边的总经理开始。因而也就决定了他的管理理论具有与泰罗的科学管理理论明显不同的特色。正如日本学者占部都美所说：“泰罗是以工厂管理合理化这一具体目标为出发点的。因此，他的科学管理法是非常富有实践性的，但缺乏一般科学性。而法约尔是从实施管理教育的目的出发的。因此，他的管理理论是概括性的，也非常富有原则性。”法约尔的管理理论从一开始就是以大企业的整体为研究对象的，而且不仅适用于公私企业，也适用于军政机关和宗教组织。法约尔认为科学管理理论与一般管理理论是相互补充的，其目的是为了改进管理，只不过采取的分析途径不同。在法约尔与泰罗之间进行比较，可以得出一些有用的结论。首先，法约尔与泰罗都曾长期任职于重工业部门，在集中研究管理理论之前，两人都因技术研究和实验而出名；其次，两人都被看作对于组织管理采取机械方法的代表，尽管这种看法是对他们理论分析和政策建立的一种简化；再次，法约尔与泰罗的管理思想渊源在许多方面都有明显的差别。虽然他们都出生在相当富裕的家庭，而且都受过工程师教育，但是法约尔是在一个强调以传统为基础的法国文化环境中成长为管理雄才的，他通过遗传和长期、忠诚的服务取得成功。泰罗则是在新教徒的伦理（基督新教（Protestantism）是由16世纪宗教改革运动中脱离罗马天主教会的教会和基督徒形成的一系列新宗派的统称，简称新教，或译为更正教、反对教，也经常被直接称为基督教，是与天主教、东正教并列，为广义上的基督宗教的三大派别之一。新教伦理是由德国社会学家马克斯.韦伯提出的理论。 “天职”观念，即某种由上帝安排的任务，成为新教的核心内容。他抛弃了原来天主教那种禁欲主义的修行而超越尘世的空洞劝解和训令，而把个人在尘世中完成所赋予他的义务当作一种至高无上的天职。 在韦伯看来，新教在客观上为证明世俗活动具有道德意义起了作用，导致和促进了资本主义精神的萌芽和发展。为了进一步考察新教伦理与资本主义的关系，韦伯还分析了新教的其他分支，特别是加尔文教的禁欲主义伦理）和美国开放式文化环境中，从最低层，通过自己的艰苦努力而取得成功的；第四，法约尔没有遭到有组织的工人的敌视，他把自己的方法介绍给工厂，实施时从未遭到过反对，而且也从未在任何调查委员会上作证；第五，泰罗开始是一名工人，是通过自己不懈努力发迹的，而法约尔一开始就当上了副经理并参与到管理人员行列。泰罗首先在工场实施他的方法，然后从中归纳出一般性的结论，而法约尔是从经理的观点创立他的一般管理体系，然后将其应用于下一级的组织机构；第六，法约尔与泰罗的之间的重要区别在于分析层次上。法约尔主要关注上级指令的有效性，和指令如何影响整体组织功能，而泰罗主要关注劳动生产率和个人任务；最后，泰罗比较年轻时就去世了，而且他的理论引起了人们颇多的议论和争议。法约尔在世时间很长，直到75岁才发表他的主要著作，并没引起强烈的争论，他的理论比泰罗更有吸引力，因为他的理论更加抽象和更加容易接受。近来的管理理论学家把法约尔和泰罗概括为同样对管理运用过分理性化、机械化方法的学者，尽管这种观点发扬了继承者对他们观点的精确理解，但就法约尔的著作来说，这种认识是不完全正确的。法约尔把组织看成是一个类似于生物学术里的“团体社会”，而不只是一架平稳运作的机器。他所提出来的原则是在不确定性存在下有效限制的指导方针，而非要完全消除这种不确定性的存在。法约尔与泰罗处于同一时代，但在当时，泰罗所受到的礼遇是法约尔所不及的，这主要是因为：一是泰罗的科学管理理论标志着古典管理理论的诞生，其划时代的意义是十分巨大的。虽然法约尔在1908年泰罗发表《科学管理原理》(1911年)之前就曾发表演讲了，但是第一次世界大战的爆发影响了其理论的总结；二是泰罗所处的美国在新技术革命中逐步占据上风，并成为新思想、新理论的策源地。这对泰罗制的推广应用和宣传是极为有利的；三是美国对法约尔的理论一开始存在偏见，迟迟没有出版英译本，直到1937年才在厄威克和古利克编纂的《管理科学论文集》中收录法约尔的一篇文章。1961年，孔茨发表著名的《管理理论的丛林》一书，指出从泰罗和法约尔到二十世纪六十年代，各种管理理论和管理学派已发展成相互盘根错节的一片丛林，必须对此进行一番梳理。梳理的结果是六个管理理论的主要学派。到1980年，20年过去了，孔茨认为有必要对管理理论再来一次梳理，又发表了《再论管理理论的丛林》，梳理的结果是已有11个管理流派了。但是，无论有多少个流派，在孔茨看来，真正正统的、完善的、有效的管理理论却只有“管理过程学派”一家，并指出这个学派的创始人是法约尔。在他看来，这种管理理论不像其他理论将社会学、经济学、生物学、心理学、物理学、化学等学科全部包括进来，而是把管理看作是在组织中通过别人或同别人一起完成工作的过程。对于这个过程从理论上加以概括，确定一些基础性的原理，并由此形成一种管理理论。再通过对原理的研究、实验和传授，来改进管理的实践。相对于管理过程理论，其他学派都有这样或那样的缺陷。法约尔认为，良好的管理不仅是提高产出、加强组织各部门计划的问题，它首先应是组织最高管理层进行更深入研究和更多管理培训的问题。这些论述无疑是泰罗本人所赞同的、而其继承者没能继承和发展的。在历史上，这种从事相同领域研究的两个人，在研究方法和研究细节上存在如此巨大差异的同时，他们的研究又存在如此巨大的互补性的情况是很少见的。

1、yē (1)耶稣或耶稣教的简称[Jesus or protestantism]佛生最先，孔次之，耶又次之。——谭嗣同《仁学》 (2)译音用字[translating.word]。如：耶和瓦(耶和华) 2、yé (1)语气助词。用于句末或句中，表示疑问、提顿、反问、选择、测度、判断、感叹等。如：耶乐(叹词。如说啊呀);耶耶(叹词。表示惊讶);耶许(象声词。本为劳动时众人齐发的声音。引申为有齐声共叹之义);耶禹(如耶许);耶耶乎(方言。有随便、马虎、不负责、不高明等意);耶揄(揶揄。耍笑、嘲弄);是耶(干 (2)同“爷”。父亲。后作“爷”[father]。(此为文言通假用法)如：今人不以贵贱呼父皆为耶，盖传袭已久矣。——宋·程大昌《演繁露》 (3)句末语气词，同“也”。“也”字在发展过程中，在语气上、运用上都有变化。它的语气，强烈果断，用在句尾，当作肯定语气词，主要用于陈述句中，比其他同类词意义明显。《史记·孙子传》：“愿勿斩也。”《史记·淮阴侯列传》：“用与不用，听与不听也。”《论语·子罕》：“三军可夺帅也，匹夫不可夺志也。”语气强烈，都表示肯定之义。由于也字读音和邪耶同，有时把它当作疑问语气词的乎、耶(邪)用……《庄子》：“然则之所谓知者，不乃为大盗积者也。”《晏子》：“景公曰：此君子之服也?小人之服也?”《晋书·魏舒传》：“主人妻夜产，俄而闻车马之声，相问曰：‘男也?女也?"”《魏书·崔浩传》：“……先攻城也?先略地也?”《魏书·刘芳传》：“(王)肃曰：‘此非刘石经耶?"”故郭忠恕《佩+集序》有邪也弗殊之说，《颜氏家训》曰：“邪者未定之辞……北人即呼为也字。”(《唐韵》正卷九“也”字条)可见古音耶(邪)、也为异字同音通用。这里也、耶(邪)虽同作疑问语气词用，但并不意味着它们是同义词。“耶”的本义属疑问语气词，而“也”的本义则属肯定语气词。所以，也字不能随便当耶字用，只有在句中岂、焉、安、何等字为之先，它才能当作耶字用，如“何为者耶”，可以作“何为者也”，而“是耶”、“非耶”不能作“是也”、“非也”。

自己把分接走。。。。没有满意的不能浪费。。。。。

爱尔兰和英国有仇，因为英国殖民过爱尔兰2.是2个不同的 3.可以 4.肯定是英国，大英帝国嘛

耶，句末语气词。通假字“邪”。有几种用法。1.表示疑问。译为“吗”或“呢”。如：六国互丧，率赂秦耶？（苏洵《六国论》）然则何时而乐耶？（范仲淹《岳阳楼记》）2.表示反问。译为“吗”或“呢”。如：赵王岂以一璧之故欺秦邪？（《史记 廉颇蔺相如列传》）又安敢毒耶？（柳宗元《捕蛇者说》）3.表示推测。译为“吧”或“吗”。如：得无楚之水土使民善盗耶？（《晏子春秋》）得无教我猎虫所耶？（《聊斋志异 促织》）